Ivan Pavlov Life, Research, Classical Conditioning

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (September 14, 1849 -  February 27, 1936)  was a Nobel Prize-winning physiologist best known for his classical conditioning experiments with dogs. In his research, he discovered the conditioned reflex, which shaped the field of behaviorism in psychology. Fast Facts: Ivan Pavlov Occupation: PhysiologistKnown For: Research on conditioned reflexes (Pavlovs Dogs)Born: September 14, 1849, in Ryazan, RussiaDied: February 27, 1936, in  Leningrad  (now St. Petersburg), RussiaParents: Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov and Varvara Ivanovna UspenskayaEducation: M.D., Imperial Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, RussiaKey Accomplishments:  Nobel Prize for Physiology (1904)Offbeat Fact: A lunar crater on the Moon was named after Pavlov. Early Years and Education Pavlov was born on September 14, 1849, in the small village of Ryazan, Russia. His father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov, was a priest who hoped that his son would follow in his footsteps and join the church. In Ivans early years, it seemed that his fathers dream would become a reality. Ivan was educated at a church school and a theological seminary. But when he read the works of scientists like Charles Darwin and I. M. Sechenov, Ivan decided to pursue scientific studies instead. He left the seminary and began studying chemistry and physiology at the University of St. Petersburg. In 1875, he earned an M.D. from the Imperial Medical Academy before going on to study under Rudolf Heidenhain and Carl Ludwig, two renowned physiologists.   Personal Life and Marriage Ivan Pavlov married Seraphima Vasilievna Karchevskaya in 1881. Together, they had five children: Wirchik, Vladimir, Victor, Vsevolod, and Vera. In their early years, Pavlov and his wife lived in poverty. During the hard times, they stayed with friends, and at one point, rented a bug-infested attic space. Pavlovs fortunes changed in 1890 when he  took an appointment as the Professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy. That same year, he became the director of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. With these  well-funded academic positions, Pavlov had the opportunity to further pursue the  scientific studies  that interested him. Research on Digestion Pavlovs early research focused primarily on the physiology of digestion. He used surgical methods to study various processes of the digestive system. By exposing portions of a dogs intestinal canal during surgery, he was able to gain an understanding of gastric secretions and the role of the body and mind in the digestive process. Pavlov sometimes operated on live animals, which was an acceptable practice back then but would not occur today due to modern ethical standards. In 1897, Pavlov published his findings in a book called â€Å"Lectures on the Work of the Digestive Glands.† His work on the physiology of digestion was also recognized with a Nobel Prize for Physiology in 1904. Some of Pavlovs other honors include  an honorary doctorate from Cambridge University, which was awarded in 1912, and  the Order of the Legion of Honor, which was given to him in 1915. Discovery of Conditioned Reflexes Although Pavlov has many notable accomplishments, he is most well known for defining the concept of conditioned reflexes.   A conditioned reflex is considered a form of learning that can occur through exposure to stimuli. Pavlov studied this phenomenon in the lab through a series of experiments with dogs. Initially, Pavlov was studying the connection between salivation and feeding. He proved that dogs have an unconditioned response when they are fed — in other words, they are hard-wired to salivate at the prospect of eating. However, when Pavlov noticed that the mere sight of a person in a lab coat was enough to cause the dogs to salivate, he realized that he had accidentally made an additional scientific discovery. The dogs had learned that a lab coat meant food, and in response, they salivated every time they saw a lab assistant. In other words, the dogs had been conditioned to respond a certain way. From this point on, Pavlov decided to devote himself to the study of conditioning. Pavlov tested his theories in the lab using a variety of neural stimuli. For example, he used electric shocks, a buzzer that produced specific tones and the ticking of a metronome to make the dogs associate certain noises and stimuli with food. He found that not only could he cause a conditioned response (salivation), he could also break the association if he made these same noises but did not give the dogs food. Even though he was not a psychologist, Pavlov suspected that his findings could be applied to humans as well. He believed that a conditioned response may be causing certain behaviors in people with psychological problems and that these responses could be unlearned. Other scientists, such as John B. Watson, proved this theory correct when they were able to replicate Pavlovs research with humans.   Death Pavlov worked in the lab until his death at the age of 86. He died on February 27, 1936, in  Leningrad  (now St. Petersburg), Russia after contracting double pneumonia. His death was commemorated with a grand funeral and a monument that was erected in his home country in his honor. His laboratory was also turned into a museum. Legacy and Impact Pavlov was a physiologist, but his legacy is primarily recognized in psychology and educational theory. By proving the existence of conditioned and non-conditioned reflexes, Pavlov provided a foundation for the study of behaviorism. Many renowned psychologists, including  John B. Watson  and  B. F. Skinner, were inspired by his work and built on it to gain a better understanding of behavior and learning. To this day, nearly every student of psychology studies Pavlovs experiments to gain a better understanding of the scientific method, experimental psychology, conditioning, and behavioral theory. Pavlovs legacy can also be seen in popular culture in books like Aldous Huxleys Brave New World, which contained elements of Pavlovian conditioning. Sources Cavendish, Richard. â€Å"Death of Ivan Pavlov.†Ã‚  History Today.Gantt, W. Horsley. â€Å"Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.†Ã‚  Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Inc., 20 Feb. 2018.McLeod, Saul. â€Å"Pavlovs Dogs.†Ã‚  Simply Psychology, 2013.Tallis, Raymond. â€Å"The Life of Ivan Pavlov.†Ã‚  The Wall Street Journal, 14 Nov. 2014.â€Å"Ivan Pavlov - Biographical.†Ã‚  Nobelprize.org.â€Å"Ivan Pavlov.†Ã‚  PBS, Public Broadcasting Service.

Fashion Eyewear An Overview Essay - 848 Words

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Comparitive Life Cycle Costing for of a Gasoline and a Hybrid Car Free Essays

string(159) " of the models of Honda is â€Å"The Civic Hybrid 2008† which is the latest model which uses hybrid technology for propulsion, which is taken into study \(www\." COMPARITIVE LIFE CYCLE COSTING FOR OF A GASOLINE AND A HYBRID CAR Digvesh khot , Narendran Neelagandan ABSTRACT The depletion of the fossil fuels is emerging as a concern for the whole world. The major sources for the consumption of this fossil fuel are our vehicles that use much of the oil for their operation. The need has been felt to devise the alternative fuel for our vehicles which should be the sustainable option so that it does not contribute to the environmental impacts rigorously. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparitive Life Cycle Costing for of a Gasoline and a Hybrid Car or any similar topic only for you Order Now The objective of the comparative analysis is to know the feasibility of the hybrid car against the petrol car. The procedure adopted for the comparative analysis is to do life cycle costing of both the engines by considering the cost, benefits, maintenance and repairs for both the engines. The weight scoring model was also developed to analyze the feasibility of both the engines on the grounds of terms like safety, comfort, emissions and incentives. After completing the comparative analysis the life cycle costing model and the weight scoring model yield the results which were analyzed and the necessary recommendations were made. The results of the comparative analysis revealed that though the Hybrid cars initially cost more, but if they are run for more than 20,000 miles than the total cost per mile is less than the petrol cars. Also weighing model for both the cars gives more weightage to hybrid cars in terms of emissions and incentives. KEYWORDS: Life Cycle costing, alternative fuels, hybrid vehicles, petrol engines. LITERATURE REVIEW Today the major problem the whole world is facing is the depletion of fossil fuels. Most of the vehicles run on these fossil fuels. It is estimated that if the consumption of these fossil fuels continues at the same rate then by the end of 2030 the fossil fuels will get reduced by 50% of the current value and the prices will increase by $10/ gallon (Kibert, 2008). To overcome this problem a lot of automobile companies are working on the new design of engine which will work on some other source of energy other than fossil fuels. So hybrid model cars were developed keeping in mind of these problems. The first hybrid car model was developed by Dr Ferdinand Porsche in 1902 using a petrol engine, rotating at a constant speed to drive a ynamo, which charged the accumulators (www. wikipedia. com; 10, 2008). These accumulators fed current to electric motors contained within the hubs of the front wheels. Before this several advancements were made in non-gasoline motors, mainly electric cars (www. wikipedia. com). Such non-gasoline car was invented somewhere around years from 1832 and 1839, by Robert Anderson of Scotland a nd his electric carriage (www. wikipedia. com; 10, 2008). After that several car manufactures have been working on different technology for a long time and recently hybrid cars were developed (www. wikipedia. com; 10, 2008). Hybrid cars are vehicles driven by hybrid engines, which are any engine that combines two or more sources of power, generally gasoline and electricity (Lipman, et. al, 2003). There are two types of gasoline-electric hybrid cars; the parallel hybrid, and the series hybrid. Both of these use gasoline-electric hybrid technology (Lipman, et. al, 2003). In parallel hybrid cars, the gasoline and electric motors work together to move the car forward. In series, the gasoline engine either directly powers an electric motor which in turn powers the vehicle or charges the battery that will in turn power the motor(Lipman, et. l, 2003). Both these type of hybrid cars use another technology called Regenerative braking which stores the kinetic energy that is created while braking. This energy is stored in a battery which runs the electric motor. (Lipman, et. al, 2003) PROJECT SUMMARY This project was based on the life cycle costing and the comparative analysis of the hybrid engines and the petrol e ngines. The goal of the project was to calculate the total cost of both the engines during their life cycle and to analyze their performance and the impacts of environments. The first objective was to develop the life cycle cost model for studying their performance with respect to the annual mileage and the total cost per year spent on both type of cars. The second objective was to develop the weight scoring model for both types of cars to analyze them on the grounds of safety, comfort, emissions, and incentives. Life cycle model for both the cars were developed using the cost components like depreciation, fees and taxes, finance, fuel, insurance, maintenance , and repairs. All the data for these cost components for both types of engines were collected from the company websites and the EPA website. After the collection of these data, the life cycle cost model has been used for calculating the total life cycle cost for hybrid as well as petrol engines. The results were analyzed for both the alternatives and the conclusions were made. Weight scoring model was also developed for the comparative analysis which included the components like safety, comfort, emissions, and the incentives. The relative weights for these components were assigned according to the priorities from the consumer point of view. The rating points were also assigned and both the cars were rated according to the aforesaid components. The sources for the data were the company websites and the EPA websites for the emission data was also cited. The results of the Weight scoring model were then analyzed and the final conclusions were made. The comparative study for both the cars revealed that the hybrid cars are more efficient in terms of long term usage than the petrol cars. CASE STUDY DESCRIPTION Many car manufactures are working on this hybrid technology to improve the fuel consumption and decrease the emission levels and Honda is one of the leading car manufacturers who have released different hybrid models into the market (www. onda. com; 11, 2008). One of the models of Honda is â€Å"The Civic Hybrid 2008† which is the latest model which uses hybrid technology for propulsion, which is taken into study (www. You read "Comparitive Life Cycle Costing for of a Gasoline and a Hybrid Car" in category "Life" honda. com; 11, 2008). The Civic Hybrid 2008 uses gasoline and electric power train for the propulsion. The engine is a 1399cc, 4 cylinder aluminum-alloy engine which supplies a power of 110hp@6000rpm (www. honda. com; 11, 2008). The electric motor supplies a maximum of 158 volts (www. honda. com; 11, 2008). The functioning of the system at various stages is different and is explained below. STARTING: The car uses an IMA (Integrated motor assist) system motor to start. If the IMA battery-pack charge is too low or if it’s very cold outside, the system has a separate battery and starter motor to back it up. (www. honda. com; 11, 2008) ACCELERATION: When extra acceleration is needed, while passing or climbing up an inclined region, the IMA System’s electric motor adds its torque automatically to the engine’s to give extra power. (www. honda. com; 11, 2008) CITY CRUISING: At steady speeds below 35 mph on level roads and under light throttle, fuel injection is ceased and the car is propelled olely by the electric motor. (www. honda. com; 11, 2008) HIGHWAY: At higher cruising speeds, the gasoline engine provides the motive power. The motor has been developed in such a way that it reduces the fuel consumption to particular levels. (www. honda. com; 11, 2008) BRAKING: The cars IMA System tap’s the kinetic energy that is produced in the vehicle, when b rakes are applied. During that period, the system’s motor turns itself into a generator, and helps in slowing down the car while at the same time it builds up the energy stored in the batteries. www. honda. com; 11, 2008) AT A STOP: When stopped, the gasoline engine automatically shuts off. When we lift our foot off the brake, and the engine restarts automatically. (www. honda. com; 11, 2008) These setups have been made to increase the vehicle performance and make them fuel efficient. The benefits of the refined gasoline electric power train are fuel economy and environment friendly emissions. This vehicle is certified by Environment protection agency (EPA) and passes all the regulation of EPA 2008 for environment. This car is also equipped with the rating of Advanced Technology of Partial Zero Emission Vehicle (AT-PZEV) which is the most stringent emission standards of United States which in turn is certified by California Air Resource Board (CARB). The technology being new is expensive and the initial cost for hybrid car is high as compared to the petrol engine cars. But if compared the life cycle cost is considerably less as compared to petrol engine due to the benefits of low emissions and fuel economy of the hybrid cars. (www. honda. om; 11, 2008) The petrol version of 2008 Honda civic sedan which is currently out in the market, is a normal car that runs on a gasoline engine. The engine is a 1799cc aluminum-alloy which produces 140hp@6300rpm (www. honda. com; 11, 2008). Gasoline or petrol engines are basic internal combustion engines which run on volatile fuels. They use air and fuel mixed together and a spark plug which produces the fire for combustion. The energy that is created is used to run the drive shaft which in-turn runs the wheel (www. wikipedia. com; 10, 2008). Petrol engines were developed by the engineers Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz (both from Germany) in 1885 who both together started the Daimler-Benz car plant (www. wikipedia. com; 10, 2008). Gasoline engines are the widely used internal combustion engines which have been under constant improvisation to improve their efficiency and to reduce the emission levels from them (www. wikipedia. com; 10, 2008). Different industries have been working towards that and Honda is one of the industries who have taken serious steps to reduce the emission levels from normal gasoline engines. www. honda. com; 11, 2008) These are the two products for which the life-cycle cost model analysis is going to be created. LIFE CYCLE COST MODEL DESCRIPTION The Life Cycle Cost (LCC) model for comparative analysis of hybrid and the petrol cars was based on following cost components: †¢Depreciation †¢Insurance †¢Financing †¢Taxes and fees †¢Fuel †¢Maintenance †¢Repairs The sourc e for developing the model was (Shtub, et. al; 2005). LCCcars = LCCdepreciation + LCCinsurance+ LCCfinancing+ LCCtaxes and fees+ LCCfuel + LCCmaintenance+ LCCrepairs. The LCC model for car is the summation of the all the cost components which will yield the total life cycle cost (Shtub, et. al; 2005). The assumptions that have been made are in terms of time frame and the cost components are as follows: 1. Time frame: The time frame for calculation has been taken as 5 years. All the data for the cost components are based on 5 years. 2. Depreciation: it is the value of the vehicle which declines as the vehicle gets older. The age of the vehicle is related to the number of miles it has travelled. For both the cars it the average of 15, 000 miles per year is being considered. 3. Insurance: It is the average annual insurance that has been taken into account. The premium charged per year for the insurance of the car has been taken from the website of Honda company for the Louisiana state. 4. Financing: This is the interest expense on a loan in the amount of true market value purchase price + destination charge + base sales tax initial fees (www. honda. com; 11, 2008). The values for these expenses are considered for Louisiana region assuming the 10% down payment and a loan term of 60 months. 5. Taxes and fees: we have included base sales taxes, license and registration fees in Louisiana region (www. dmunds. com, 11/2008). 6. Fuel: Assuming 45% driving on freeways and 55% driving in city we have collected the data for the fuel from www. epa. gov. 7. Maintenance: We have considered both the scheduled and the unscheduled maintenance in this cost components. 8. Repairs: the estimated expenses for repairs that do not come under the manufacturer’s warranty f or five years, is taken as repairs. (www. edmund. com;11, 2008) The life cycle costing has been done for three conditions and they are: †¢Condition 1: cost component data for USA †¢Condition 2: cost component data for Louisiana. Condition 3: distance travelled is 10, 000 miles with a 55% driving in city and 45% driving on freeways. CHECK LIST MODEL DESCRIPTION The weighing model that has been created has taken into consideration of few factors which are not taken into account by many car owners. Factors like safety, comfort, and emissions do not play a significant factor for many people who plan to buy a car. This motivated us to create the scoring model for these factors. For the Honda civic Dx (2008 model) and Honda civic hybrid (2008, model) safety, comfort, and emissions are taken into account and the relative weights are given. The safety features are good for the in the midsize segment with disc for the front, 4 wheel ABC and the airbags for the head, and side (www. honda. com; 11, 2008). But these can be improved to the next level by adding the disc brakes to all the wheels and by increasing the number of airbags. The comfort level is taken into consideration as some people spend more time in the car driving around, so the comfort level plays an important part. The next criteria are the emission levels of the car which is taken into consideration for analyzing the environmental impact of them. The last criteria is the incentives that are being offered for the buying a hybrid cars. The source for developing the weighing model was (Shtub, et. al; 2005). On the basis of the above criteria the weighing model has been developed and the results were analyzed to make conclusions. RESULTS Life cycle costing Model 1: Honda Civic Dx 4 door Sedan Condition 1: cost component data for USA Maximum or manufacturer’s suggestion retail price: $ 15, 810. Owner ship: 1-5 years. Cost componentsCost ($) Depreciation 10,112 Fees and taxes 730 Finance 2331 Fuel9945 Insurance8348 Maintenance1720 Repairs643 Total life cycle cost37645 Note: The miles driven are kept constant and the values are tabulated for USA Source: www. autochannel. com, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for cost component data except for the fuel data. www. epa. gov – fuel data. Condition 2: cost component data for Louisiana. Maximum or manufacturer’s suggestion retail price: $ 15, 810. Owner ship: 1-5 years. Cost componentsCost ($) Depreciation 9002 Fees and taxes 1407 Finance 2963 Fuel8478 Insurance10119 Maintenance2934 Repairs625 Total life cycle cost35528 Note: the above values are taken for Louisiana region Source: www. utochannel. com, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for cost component data except for the fuel data. www. epa. gov- Fuel data. Condition 3: distance travelled is 10, 000 miles with a 55% driving in city and 45% driving on freeways. Maximum or manufacturer’s suggestion retail price: $ 15, 810. The car has driven for 10,000 miles (55% city and 45% freeways) Owner shi p: 1-5 years. Cost componentsCost ($) Depreciation 8851 Fees and taxes 1194 Finance 2405 Fuel6568 Insurance6759 Maintenance1176 Repairs564 Opportunity cost2999 Total life cycle cost30, 518 Note: the cost per mile for 10,000 miles is $. 1, for 15,000 miles is $. 48, and for 20,000 miles $0. 46. Source: www. autochannel. com, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for cost component data except for the fuel data. www. epa. gov- Fuel data. Model 2: Honda Civic hybrid 4 door Sedan Condition 1: cost component data for USA Maximum or manufacturer’s suggestion retail price: $ 22, 600. Owner ship: 1-5 years. Cost componentsCost ($) Depreciation 11993 Fees and taxes 1974 Finance 4117 Fuel6155 Insurance10622 Maintenance2932 Repairs625 Total life cycle cost38478 Note: The miles driven are kept constant and the values are tabulated for USA Source: www. utochannel. com, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for cost component data except for the fuel data. www. epa. gov – Fuel dat a. Condition 2: cost component data for Louisiana. Maximum or manufacturer’s suggestion retail price: $ 22,600. Owner ship: 1-5 years. Cost componentsCost ($) Depreciation 13128 Fees and taxes 511 Finance 3331 Fuel6846 Insurance9252 Maintenance1920 Opportunity cost3857 Repairs679 Total life cycle cost39525 Note: the above values are taken for Louisiana region Source: www. autochannel. com, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for cost component data except for the fuel data. ww. epa. gov – fuel data. Condition 3: Distance travelled is 10, 000 miles with a 55% driving in city and 45% driving on freeways. Maximum or manufacturer’s suggestion retail price: $ 22, 600. The car has driven for 10,000 miles (55% city and 45% freeways) Owner ship: 1-5 years. Cost componentsCost ($) Depreciation 12189 Fees and taxes 1157 Finance 3615 Fuel4536 Insurance7491 Maintenance1402 Repairs596 Opportunity cost3212 Total life cycle cost34198 Note: the cost per mile for 10,000 miles is $. 68, for 15,000 miles is $. 51, and for 20,000 miles $0. 47. Source: www. autochannel. om, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for cost component data except for the fuel data. www. epa. gov – Fuel data. Sensitivity analysis The data used for sensitivity analysis was miles per year travelled and the increment taken for it was 5000. For Model 1: Honda Civic Dx 4 door Sedan No of milesCost per mile($)Data source 100000. 61www. epa. gov 150000. 48www. epa. gov 200000. 46www. epa. gov 250000. 47www. epa. gov For Model 2: Honda Civic hybrid 4 door Sedan No of milesCost per mile($)Data source 100000. 68www. epa. gov 150000. 51www. epa. gov 200000. 47www. epa. gov 50000. 45www. epa. gov The initial cost for the petrol engine may be less than the hybrid cars but after 20000 miles of running hybrid cars are more fuel efficient than the petrol engines. After performing the sensitivity analysis we observed that initially the cost per mile for petrol is less than the hybrid cars , but as you increase the number of miles after 20,000 miles hybrid cars become more fuel efficient. The breakeven point on the sensitivity graph shows the changing nature of fuel efficiency for hybrid cars and petrol cars. Weight scoring method (Shtub, et. al; 2005). Weighing model for Honda civic DX 2008: For all criteria and the relative weight the values are assumed according to the priority of consumer. CriteriaRelative weightExcellent 30(assumed)Good 20(assumed)Fair 10(assumed)Poor 0(assumed)Factor score safety. 3v6 Comfort. 2v2 emissions. 4v2 incentives. 1v0 total1. 0010 Source: www. autochannel. com, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for criteria data except the fuel data and www. epa. gov for fuel data. Weighing model for Honda civic hybrid 2008: For all criteria and the relative weight the values are assumed according to the priority of consumer. CriteriaRelative weightExcellent 30(assumed)Good 20(assumed)Fair 10(assumed)Poor 0(assumed)Factor score safety. 3v6 Comfort. 2v4 emissions. 412 incentives. 1v3 total1. 00v25 Source: www. autochannel. com, www. honda. com, and www. edmunds. com for criteria data except the fuel data and www. epa. gov for fuel data. The weighing score model shows that for hybrid cars the factor score is more than the petrol car and the reason is the hybrid cars are more emission free than the petrol car, also the criteria of the incentive for hybrid car makes it more preferable for the customers. The hybrid cars have a 25-100% federal tax credit which could move people towards buying the hybrid cars which are environmentally friendly as compared to petrol (www. honda. com; 11/2008) . Conclusions After carrying out the life cycle costing, sensitivity analysis, and the weight scoring the following conclusions can be reached: †¢Though the petrol cars are cheaper than the hybrid cars but the life cycle cost of hybrid cars after 20,000 miles makes it the better option. †¢Due to the depletion of fossil fuels, petrol cars do not serve to be the best option. Hybrid cars produced less emission than the petrol engines so they are environmentally friendly cars which makes them a sustainable product. †¢The incentives offered by the federal state government for buying the hybrid car may serve as a good step towards motivating people to go for hybrid option Bibliography autochannel. (2008). comparison of hybrid cars and petrol engine cars for miles travelled. Retrieved 11 24 , 2008, from www. autochannel. com. Avraham Shtub, j. F. (2005). Project management process, methodology and economics. pper saddle river, new jersey: pearson, prantice hall. edmund. (2008). cost comparison data for hybrid and petrol cars. Retrieved 11 24, 2008, from www. edmund. com. environmental protection agency. (2008). emissions for hybrid and petrol engines. Retrieved 11 29, 2008, from www. epa. gov. Environmental protection agency. (2008). fuel cost for hybrid and petrol engines. Retrieved 11 29, 2008, from www. epa. gov. H. Paul Barringer, P. D. (1996). Life Cycle Cost Tutorial. Houston, Texas: Marriott Houston Westside. Heather L. MacLean, e. (2000). A Life-Cycle Comparison of Alternative Automobile Fuels. journal of the air and waste management association , 1769-1779. honda USA. (2008). hybrid cars and petrol cars. Retrieved 11 24, 2008, from www. honda. com. Jeremy Hackney, R. d. (1999). Life cycle model of alternative fuel vehicles: emissions, energy,and cost trade-offs. science direct journal , 243-267. lester lave, h. m. (2000). life cycle analysis of automobile fuel/propulsion technologies. environmental science and technology , 1600-1698. Steven Kmenta, K. I. (2000). SCENARIO-BASED FMEA: A LIFE CYCLE COST PERSPECTIVE. Baltimore, Maryland: ASME. the fuel cell vehicle analysis of enegy use, emission and cost . (1998). pergamon , 381-385. Timothy E. Lipman, M. A. (2003). Hybrid-Electric Vehicle Design Retail and Lifecycle Cost Analysis. Berkeley, California 94720: Energy and Resources Group. wikipedia. (2008). hybrid engines and petrol ngines. Retrieved 10 29, 2008, from www. wikipedia. com. Kibert, C. J. (2008). Sustainable Construction . New Jersey: John Willey and Sons. How to cite Comparitive Life Cycle Costing for of a Gasoline and a Hybrid Car, Essays

International Security Second World War

Question: Is The Proliferation Of Nuclear Weapons Something To Be Feared or Welcomed? Answer: Introduction A nuclear weapon is a device that explodes as a result of nuclear reactions. The significant impact of nuclear proliferation is the bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima during the Second World War. The bombing of these two cities increased peoples awareness of the power and strength of nuclear weapons. Globally, there are approximately 16,000 nuclear weapons possessed by few countries. About7, 000 of these explosives are owned by the United States whereas 300 by France, 7,700 by Russia, and 250 by China (Green garage, 2014: par.5). Accordingly, the United Kingdom owns about 225, Pakistan 110, 80 in Israel, 100 in India and 10 in North Korea. For this reason, the paper aims to argue that the proliferation of nuclear weapons is something to be feared because they increase the world vulnerability to nuclear war, to be precise between the superpowers. Besides, the proliferation of these weapons might result in nuclear terrorism if these weapons are accessed by terrorist organizations and a threat to human life. Overview of the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons among Nations According to Burroughs (2007: 33), nations around the world are increasingly determined to commence stockpiling and developing reliable and efficient nuclear weapons. In fact, nonnuclear materials, knowledge, and components required to design these weapons are easily accessible globally. Detailed analysis of how to construct facilities that produce nuclear weapons is in public domain. The availability of this information might be utilized by terrorist organization and rebels to design their weapons and use them to terrorize the world. Nations such as India and Russia among others are developing nuclear weapons with the primary objective of feeling secure. Given the fact that nations possessing these weapons including China, the United States, and France among others are feeling insecure without them, nonnuclear states will also be triggered to have their own nuclear weapons to feel safer (Perkovich, 1999: 65). As a result, they will jeopardize the peace being experienced in various parts of the world as a consequence of the possibility of nuclear terrorism. Since the mid-1960s, nations have become concerned about the possibility of terrorist organizations acquiring nuclear weapons. Schultz (2007: 15) argues that terrorist groups aim to utilize these weapons to destabilize governments and extort them in the case of a coup. Besides, the proliferation of nuclear weapons will compel terrorist organizations to use force to steal these weapons from transport vehicles and military facilities. Challenges of Nuclear Proliferation The proliferation of nuclear weapons whether by non-state or state actors jeopardizes international security. The challenge of nuclear weapon proliferation is global and to halt the proliferation of these weapons, countries must join hands. Nine states including the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Pakistan, North Korea, Israel, India, France, and China are believed or acknowledged to own nuclear weapons (Sidel Levy, 2007: 1560). Other countries including South Korea, Germany, and Japan exhibits the technological capability also to acquire these weapons. The declining oil prices in conjunction with the need to invest in nuclear energy, the increased diffusion of technical and scientific knowledge and fossil fuels impact on the environment has resulted in the need to access dual-use technologies. However, there are efforts to counter the proliferation of nuclear weapons. For instance, the UN Security Council (UNSC) in 2009 passed Resolution 1887 that emphasized on total nuc lear disarmament (Sidel Levy, 2007: 1563). As a result of this treaty, the number of countries that embraced the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty increased to 157 by 2011(Council of Foreign Relations, 2013). The treaty also encouraged countries including Iran, Israel, and the United States to follow suit. Despite the existence of this treaty, multilateral institutions have not been successful in preventing nations such as North Korea, Pakistan, and India from developing nuclear weapons. For this reason, there is a need for the reinforcement and updating of the existing framework to address threats posed by the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Reasons why the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons should be Feared Nuclear Proliferation is Threat to Life on Earth and Humanity Krieger (2010: par.3) argues that the proliferation of nuclear weapons poses a great challenge to the human population because they are deadly and dangerous. Previously, they were utilized to cause havoc in the cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, signifying that these weapons are dangerous. Despite the threat that nuclear weapons pose to the life of human beings, leaders of some countries still develop and maintain nuclear weapons and depend on them to strengthen their national security. Accordingly, they justify the possession of nuclear weapons using the theory of nuclear deterrence. Using this theory, they claim that the proliferation of nuclear weapons averts war by the threat of revenge using extreme and destructive force (Alexander Millar, 2003: 245). However, they fail to understand that this theory is flawed and subjected to human fallibility. For instance, it is difficult for a leader with nuclear weapons to make a rational decision when exposed to stressful situations. Besid es, deterrence is not effective against non-state actors including extremist groups. It is challenging to locate these groups and their followers are suicidal. For this reason, deterrence is not effective because when it fails, the impact of nuclear weapons is catastrophic. Nuclear Proliferation is Characterized by Various Risks The nuclear experiment can have a significant impact on human life because their effects are felt for decades. For instance, nuclear weapons can result in radiation disaster which affects human beings and the environment including wildlife and water ecosystem. In addition to having a great impact on the environment and human life, the proliferation of nuclear weapons continues to fuel geopolitical instability as evidenced by non-fruitful efforts by the UN Security Council to agree with Iran regarding its nuclear program in the future (Meyer Stephen, 2006: 54). Equally, the author contends that the conflicts experienced today are as a result of non-state actors. Leaders characterized by a revolutionary past are likely to seek nuclear capability. For example, Kim Jong-Un, in North Korea has made a decision to invest in a nuclear program despite the ailing economy of the country. North Korean president defied UN sanctions, and in 2015, he launched his fourth nuclear test which was follo wed by the launch of an intermediate-range ballistic missile. Non-state actors are not only the concern because technological advances and the efficiency of nuclear equipment have increased the potential attainment of nuclear weapons by organized crime works, terrorist groups, and rebel movements. Various nuclear weapons were left behind following the collapse of the Soviet Union. As a consequence, these weapons are illegally sold in Eastern Europe. Arguably, this is considered the major threat of nuclear proliferation because they are easily accessed by terrorist groups such as ISIS (Cowen Karp, 2001: 38). These groups use the radioactive materials in these weapons to generate bombs. As a matter of fact, great attention is on the potential threat that might result as a consequence of terrorist accessing nuclear weapons whereas little focus has been channeled on the possibility of nuclear sites being attacked by terrorist groups. An attack on nuclear power plant will release radioactive materials that will jeopardize the health of human beings and the environment. Nuclear sites across France and Belgium remains vulnerable given the recent attacks by ISIS, a terrorist group (Portela, Bourantonis Blavoukos, 2015: 55). High Maintenance and Cost Maintaining and building nuclear weapons is costly and some nations are funding nuclear weapon development at the expense of the citizens well-being. Channelling a larger percentage of the countrys resources on nuclear weapons development exhibits a negative impact on the treasury and triggers an unsympathetic political criticism. Fair (2016: 55) argues that very few countries can invest in weapons of mass destruction and at the same time remain wealthy and productive. Countries that channel their focus on designing and maintaining weapons of mass destruction divert from issues that are pertinent to the population. The Tendency of using Nuclear Weapons as a Strategic Excuse Nations possessing nuclear weapons often posits that they depend on them as tools for strategic defense. Likewise, they point out that minus these weapons of mass destruction, they are susceptible to various attacks. Despite the fact that these weapons are characterized by high risk of devastation and destruction, some countries often chose to keep nuclear weapons active and ready to use whenever necessary. Defense experts also contend that doing away with nuclear weapons will put some nations at a disadvantage because some nations considered hostile are developing these weapons (Taylor, 2015: 5). Regardless these arguments, it is obvious that countries with weapons of mass destruction are more likely of utilizing them in future to wage war. Threat of Nuclear War According to Porterfield (2005: 66) point of view, weapons of mass destruction are important in preventing military aggression and exhibit an equalizing effect regardless the size of the country. Proponents of the weapon of mass destruction argue that the proliferation of nuclear weapons increases the diplomatic and military standing of a country. However, they fail to understand that nuclear weapons pose a threat and destroy life in case countries take part in nuclear warfare. The proliferation of nuclear weapons renders human beings to stay in fear. In addition to the incident of nuclear war, there are also other dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons such as an explosion of the nuclear plant. For instance, Ukraine Chernobyl nuclear plant disaster of 1986 affected thousands of population in the country. Why It Is Difficult To Contain the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Even though Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) prohibits countries from producing weapons of mass destruction, the existing non-proliferation instruments have failed in deterring nuclear possessing states from destroying their weapons. For instance, it is the responsibility of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to direct states that fail to comply with the above treaty to the UN Security Council (UNSC). The council, in turn, imposes punitive measures or sanctions to countries that fail to comply with the terms and conditions of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (Fleck Black-Branch, 2016: 95). Unfortunately, political calculations have made it difficult for the UNSC to discharge its duties allowing nuclear rogues such as the United States and Iran to disregard fairly weak and successive UN sanctions. Another challenge posed in an endeavour to put an end to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction is the absence of sufficient enforcement and verification mech anism accessible by IAEA. Besides, this agency technological resources, intelligence capabilities, and budget are inadequate to punish, prevent, or deter countries from violating NPT regulations (Council of Foreign Relations, 2013: 10). The organization does not have access to countries nuclear facilities including those of North Korea and Iran. As a consequence, nuclear materials are being sold on the black market. To eliminate the fear posed by the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, it is important for the International Atomic Energy Agency to implement additional protocols that will boost its mandate and inspections. However, getting countries such as Iran, Syria and the United States to agree to these protocols is a major challenge. The countries possessing nuclear weapons should be made to understand that depending on the nuclear weapon to defend themselves is increasingly becoming hazardous and dangerous, especially if they fall into the hands of terrorist organizations. Diehl and Moltz (2008: 25) also notes that controlling proliferation and eventually abolishing weapons of mass destruction requires the involvement of the society, professional and nongovernmental organizations as well as intergovernmental organizations and national government. Conclusion The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction among terrorists or nations increases the threat of nuclear violence on a global scale. The impact of such an attack would be intolerable. There is also increased likelihood that the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction might be accessed by irrational individuals who does not care about world security and peace. For instance, easy access to weapons of mass destruction by terrorist groups or psychotic leader might be used to trigger nuclear war as an act of retaliation against humanity. In this context, the usage of weapons of mass destruction is considered very dangerous and immoral. Equally, maintaining and building of nuclear weapons is very expensive causing a country to ignore issues that enhance the well-being of the population. For this reason, it is important for countries to understand that having a nuclear weapons does not necessary make them qualify as advanced and powerful nations. On the contrary, countries such as Australia and Spain do not have nuclear weapons but are considered advanced and powerful nations as the likes of Iran and the United States. List of References Alexander, B. Millar, A. (2003) Tactical nuclear weapons: emergent threats in an evolving security environment, Washington, D.C: Brassey's Burroughs, J. (2007) The (il)legality of threat or use of nuclear weapons: a guide to the historic opinion of the International Court of Justice, Mu?nster: LIT Press. Council of Foreign Relations.(2013) The Global Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime.[Online] Available At: https://www.cfr.org/nonproliferation-arms-control-and-disarmament/global-nuclear-nonproliferation-regime/p18984 Cowen Karp, R. (2001) Security with nuclear weapons?: different perspectives on national security, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Diehl, S. J., Moltz, J. C. (2008) Nuclear weapons and nonproliferation: a reference handbook, Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. Fair, C.C .(2016) 'Pakistans Nuclear Proliferation and Its Impact on International and Regional Security', National Bureau of Asian Research, p. 155. Fleck, D. Black-Branch, J.L. (2016), Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International Law : Volume II - Verification and Compliance, Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press. Green garage.(2014) 7 Biggest Pros and Cons of Nuclear Weapons.[Online] Available At:https://greengarageblog.org/7-biggest-pros-and-cons-of-nuclear-weapon Krieger, D.(2010) Nuclear Weapons Present a Real and Present Danger to Humanity and Life on Earth. [Online] Available At: https://www.globalresearch.ca/nuclear-weapons-present-a-real-and-present-danger-to-humanity-and-life-on-earth/18359. Meyer Stephen M. (2006) Dynamics of nuclear proliferation, Chicago: Univ Of Chicago Press. Perkovich, G. (1999), India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation, California: University of California Press. Portela, C, Bourantonis, D, Blavoukos, S. (2015), The EU and the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons : Strategies, Policies, Actions, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan Porterfield, J. (2005) Terrorism, dirty bombs, and weapons of mass destruction, New York: Rosen Pub. Group. Schultz, G.P, Perry W.J, Kissinger, H.A, Nunn S. A.(2007) World Free of Nuclear Weapons. The Wall Street Journal Sidel, V.W. Levy, B.S.(2007) Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: Opportunities for Control and Abolition, American Journal of Public Health, vol.97, no.9, pp. 1589-1594 Taylor, T.B.(2015) Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. [Online] Available At: https://ee.stanford.edu/~hellman/Breakthrough/book/pdfs/taylor.pdf

Victims needs and the restorative justice process an Example of the Topic Government and Law Essays by

Victims needs are more adequately met through the restorative justice process. This paper seeks to analyze and discuss to assertion that victims needs are more adequately met through the restorative justice process. Restorative justice is a theory of criminal justice that considers crime as an act against another individual or community rather than the state, thus the victim is being made to play a major role in the process and for which he or she may receive some type of restitution from the offender (McCold, P.,n.d., Minister of Justice,1996). Need essay sample on "Victims needs are more adequately met through the restorative justice process." topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed As distinguished from retributive justice, restorative justice takes on those who are victims of wrongdoings or crimes committed against them and those who harmed them including the affected communities to find a fair set solutions that perhaps repair, reconcile and rebuild broken relationships. This kind of justice has the element of taking responsibility (Prison Fellowship International, 2007) for ones action and there seems of to be acknowledgement of human frailty which could commit mistakes yet justice may still be served by the participation of the affected parties. When one takes responsibility for ones action, the victims will be feel a deeper sense of justice as this could imply a less work for legalism and more of humanism that man is free and such violation of freedom is explainable. Our Customers Frequently Tell EssayLab professionals: Who wants to write essay for me? Professional writers advise: Order Papers On Essaylab.Com At present the term restorative justice may even encompass a movement to have peaceful means in resolving to harm committed against persons such as the way violations of legal and human rights even in the international tribunals are resolved or as simple as procedures that introduce innovation in a given criminal justice system of a nations, schools, and even communities. What is important is that under the restorative justice as principle, there is an attempt to build partnerships and to reestablish mutual responsibility for constructive responses to bad behavior within our communities. It has therefore the objective of a balanced approach to address both the needs of the victim, wrongdoer and community through processes with the belief that this will preserve the safety and dignity of all (Suffolk University, College of Arts & Sciences, and Center for Restorative Justice). On the basis of the primacy of community life, this paper argues for the advantage of restorative justice in many respects over that of retributive justice except for those that may not be applicable on the basis of common sense. Victims and their families normally ask the question why such wrong things are committed upon their person, property or liberty on the grounds that psychological reason may help them heal from the harm that was committed against. There is a bible verse that says the truth will set you free. This paper would like to adopt the principle behind that bible verse that knowing that truth about every situation makes it easier for the mind to accept eventually and that would help the victims and their families to move on to the next steps or levels of their lives. Even in ordinary personal encounter between a person and from a person from whom a responsibility can be demanded, the act of contrition of admission that something was committed wrongly is admission of ou r humanity and the suffering of the necessary consequence of such unfortunate action. In the same way, a parent would be more forgiving if his or her child will accept responsibility for his or her action. Such acceptance could even melt the heart of such parent. If viewed in larger group of people, such admission of guilt by the offender when accepted by the victim could move easier the heart of the victim of her or his family to forgive and then move on in life. Thus it cold be observed the in criminal cases, victims may express their deepest emotions be they anger or otherwise against the offenders and for the parties belonging to the offender to admit about the wrongness of the act committed. Such act may not be financial in compensation or reward to the families of the victim but the mere opportunity to express the feeling and emotions as to demonstrate the full impact of the crime upon their lives is for them one of better means to justice. The other option is to allow retributive justice to take its course, which may not result to desires effect because the offending party may deny strongly what may have been admitted personally because of the fear that state may be inhuman in imposing punishment of the crime. In addition, under the restorative justice, the victims and or his or families may have the chance to receive answers to any persistent questions about the incident that would help them understand and why the offender has may have done the same thing. At this juncture, it may even argue that restorative justice is not only beneficial to the offended but also to the offender. It may be noted that most crimes at present have their personal sides. While at present crimes are committed against the state, it is also said that every person criminally liable is also civilly liable. What the law has done is to approximate the psychological harm committed upon the victim by monetary compensation as a result of the act. But it may neglected the fact that humans have feelings and emotions that may not be paid in money but only through the honest admission of the offender that such act was committed for reasons that may made acceptable to other party. By giving therefore the chance to the offended party, he or she may even tell the whole truth privately to hearts content of the families of the victims. This writer has personally witnessed a crime of killing where the offender was the boss of administrator of a building who has served his boss for more than 40 years of his life. Since the victim as killed, his families could express lingering questions why such on earth could such killing have happened when the man who was the victim may have given the best of lifetime to the boss. The issue of loyalty was there and ordinary people would like to think that killing that person should be the last thing to happen. When the offender was interviewed in the television, he stated that he wanted to tell the families of victim privately what really transpired during the night that the event happened but at that that moment of interview the families of the victim were furious against the offender since the crimes was just committed within th e weak. From the analysis of legal minds, it could be inferred that the offender is taking the position of not telling everything to the public because it may jeopardize his defense theory which was self-defense. But the main point of the story is that due to the strained relation that the offender might have felt he has committed against the victim and his families, he was willing to tell the complete story for the killing. From the psychological point of view, the offender, after admitting of the killing has the heart to tell to victims privately about the truth of the killing but which he cannot tell in public. As could be gleaned from circumstance of the story, the negotiations using restorative justice should be held confidential as this could repair the relationships of the parties without risks of making public what they wanted to keep private. The other option therefore seems to be uncertain when the case goes to trial under the principle of retributive justice. Most of the times, trial could be held public and this unnecessarily expose the parties about some secrets that should have been preserved for the repair if not strengthening of their relationships. Another application of restorative justice that would benefit the victim is in social justice cases, where the poor children are granted the chance to express their future hopes for tangible plans under transition out of state custody under a process they should be led into with their supporters (Walker, L, 2005). Braithwaite, J. (2002) also mentioned about the use of restorative justice in problem solving. Compensation under restorative justice particularly in criminal cases is not limited to money as it could include community service that may be or service specific to the act committed, self-education to thwart recidivism, and/or expression of remorse. This therefore could involved a wider sense of making the healing which the victim may eventually appreciate as he or she would see that compensation is not only restorative of the personal relationship that was destroyed but also the wider community where the victims and/or his/her families and offender and and/or his/her families will still continued to live together despite the unfortunate event. It does not mean however that restorative justice should be applied all the time as there could be as case where the offender does not admit or that the victims are not identified such in the case of drug pushing. In the latter case, retributive justice will have to take its course and impose the most fair judgment to keep society moving and growing as a community of rational and just beings. Restorative justice may not be also applied where the offenders are unable to take responsibility for the acts or wrong committed in cases they suffer from serious mental illness or they are ready to an encounter with their victim. It could be concluded based on the foregoing analysis and discussion that victims needs more adequately met through the restorative justice process. Restorative justice brings satisfaction to the victim to see that offender has felt remorse for wrong things done in addition of course to the civil and criminal liabilities that offender must suffer a consequence. Justice to the victim is not only seeing the offender in prison but that person to realize that what he or she has done is wrong. This would in effect give assurance to the victims and his/her familys assurance that such wrong may not at least be repeated. References Braithwaite, J., Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation, 2002. McCold, P. (n.d.) Restorative Justice: The Role Of The Community, Minister of Justice (1996) Chapter 2 : Defining Restorative Justice, Prison Fellowship International, Pelikan, (2007 ) Christa. On Restorative Justice, Suffolk University, College of Arts & Sciences, Centre for Restorative Justice, Walker, L., E Makua Ana Youth Circles: A Transition Planning Process for Youth Exiting Foster Care, 2005, VOMA Connections No. 21.

The Catcher in the Rye Summary

'The Catcher in the Rye' Summary J.D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye follows the young protagonist Holden Caulfield, who narrates a three-day stint after being kicked out of prep school sometime in the 1950s.  Holden decides to leave before the end of the semester and travel to Manhattan, where he spends his time wandering the city and trying to connect with old friends and family. Chapters 1-7 Holden begins his story the day he leaves Pencey Prep, the all-boys boarding school he attends in Pennsylvania. It’s Saturday, and there’s a football game against Saxon Hill. Holden decides to go see his history teacher Mr. Spencer instead of watching the game. Mr. Spencer tries to talk some sense into Holden, who is being expelled for flunking nearly all of his classes. Holden decides that Mr. Spencer will never understand his point of view and returns to the dorms. Back in his room, Holden is interrupted by Robert Ackley, who lives next door. Ackley is rather unpopular, and Holden expresses annoyance at Ackley’s unhygienic personal habits. Stradlater, Holden’s popular roommate, is getting ready for a date. Holden thinks Stradlater is a â€Å"phony, and he is displeased that Stradlaters date is Jane Gallagher. Jane is an old friend of Holdens, and he knows that Stradlater is a womanizer who wont treat her with respect. Stradlater asks Holden to do his homework assignment for him. Holden acquiesces, and after he goes out for hamburgers and pinball with Ackley and his friend Mal Brossard, he goes back to the dorm to write. Holden writes the essay about his younger brother Allies baseball glove. Holden reveals that Allie died of leukemia in 1946, and Holden is wrapped up in memories of Allie during the writing process. When Stradlater returns to the dorms, he reads the essay and gets mad at Holden for straying from the assignments instructions. Holden asks whether he slept with Jane, but Stradlater wont answer, and Holden becomes so angry that he punches him. Stradlater pins Holden to the ground and gives him a bloody nose in retaliation. Holden decides to leave school early and head to New York City. He sells his typewriter for some extra money. Between that sum and the amount his grandmother sent him, he figures he has more than enough money to last him for a couple of days. Chapters 8-14 On the train, Holden meets the mother of Ernest Morrow, a student Holden calls the biggest bastard at school.  Holden tells the woman that his name is Rudolf Schmidt and makes up a story about how shy, modest, and popular Ernest is. Once they arrive in New York, Holden says goodbye to Mrs. Morrow and takes a taxi to Edmont Hotel. On the way, he becomes preoccupied with the whereabouts of the Central Park ducks during wintertime. He asks the driver, but the question only seems to annoy him. At the hotel, Holden thinks about phoning Jane, but instead ends up going to the bar and trying to buy a drink. He dances with three tourist women. He finds their eagerness to spot celebrities pathetic and sad, but ultimately falls half in love with one of the women because of how well she dances. When the women leave, Holden starts thinking about Jane again. He decides to head to Ernie’s, a popular spot for prep-school and college-age kids. He runs into Lillian Simmons, who used to date his older brother D.B. She invites him to sit with her, but he finds her pretentious, so he he leaves and walks back to his hotel. The hotels elevator operator, Maurice, offers to send a prostitute named Sunny to Holdens room for five dollars. Holden agrees, but when the woman arrives, he becomes uncomfortable and changes his mind. He sees how young and nervous she is and tells her that he just wants to talk. Sunny tells Holden that her visit costs ten dollars instead of five. Holden refuses to pay the extra money. Maurice and Sunny return together to beat Holden up and take the money. Chapters 15-19 The next day, Holden calls a former girlfriend named Sally to schedule a date, then heads to a sandwich bar for breakfast. At the sandwich bar, he talks to two nuns about their work and the books hes reading for school. Holden enjoys their company and donates ten dollars for their collection. He then leaves to go meet up with Sally. During his the walk, Holden buys a record called Little Shirley Beans for his younger sister Phoebe, knowing that she will love it. At the play, Holden expresses how much he hates the phoniness of plays and movies. Sally, however, loves the matinee. Holden grows increasingly annoyed when Sally runs into an old friend and carries on a loud conversation with him about various acquaintances. Then Holden and Sally leave and go ice-skating in Central Park, mainly because Sally loves the skating costume she gets to wear. After ice skating, Holden urges Sally to run away with him and live in a cabin in the woods in New England. Sally refuses, seemingly panicked by Holdens behavior, and the two get into a fight. Holden calls her a pain in the ass, and Sally gets so upset that they part ways on terrible terms. Holden tries to call Jane again, but hangs up when she doesn’t answer. He goes to see a movie, hating how cheesy it is, before going to see an old classmate of his named Carl Luce. They meet up at the Wicker Bar. Holden makes too many inappropriate jokes, and their conversation sours quickly. After Luce leaves, Holden remains at the bar and gets very drunk. Chapters 20-26 Holden calls Sally late at night to make amends, but her mother answers the phone and Sally gets on the line only to tell him to go home. He takes a walk in Central Park, where he accidentally breaks the record he bought for Phoebe. Holden decides to go home to visit her. He is careful to sneak into her room to avoid being detected by his parents, who still think he’s at school and do not know about his expulsion. Holden loves talking with Phoebe, but when she finds out that he’s been expelled, she grows angry with him. Phoebe asks Holden if he likes anything, and he can’t think of anything other than this boy, James Castle, who fell out a window at school and died. He tells Phoebe that he likes Allie, and she retorts that Allie is dead. Holden tells Phoebe that he fantasizes about being the catcher in the rye. He envisions a group of children running around in a field of rye at the edge of the cliff, and pictures himself catching the children and saving them from falling over the edge- effectively preventing them from losing their innocence. Holden leaves when his parents return from a party. He rings up his old English teacher, Mr. Antolini, who lives in the city and teaches English at NYU. Mr. Antolini tries to give Holden life advice, and warns him about caring too much about the wrong things so as to not be able to function in society. He and his wife set up the couch for Holden to spend the night on. Holden is woken up by Mr. Antolini patting his head and becomes so uncomfortable that he leaves. He ends up sleeping at Grand Central Station and spends the next day wandering around Fifth Avenue. Holden fantasizes about leaving the city and pretending to be a deaf-mute so that he can work as a gas station attendee out West and never interact with anyone. He visits Phoebe’s school and leaves a note asking her to meet him at the museum to say goodbye for good. While at the school, Holden notices an expletive scribbled on the wall. He grows angry thinking about the innocent children who will see the word and learn its meaning. He tries to rub it off, but its permanent. Phoebe meets Holden at the museum as he requested. She has a suitcase with her, and she tells Holden that she wants to run away with him. Holden refuses and Phoebe gets so angry that she won’t walk next to him. They go the Central Park Zoo. Holden tells Phoebe he will stay, and he buys her a ticket for the carousel. He experiences overwhelming happiness as he watches her ride the carousel. Holden ends the story by alluding to the time that has lapsed since the events in the novel. He says that he got sick, has been visiting with a psychoanalyst, and is going to start a new school in September. Holden ends the novel by expressing how much he misses his old classmates and others in his life.

CORE Questions and Answers like Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CORE Questions and Answers like - Essay Example His theory does not negotiate neither on the argument based the reach to the need nor on the level of compromising ones’ luxury towards a social cause. Even though, Singer’s theory does not precisely define the level of sacrifice one should do to equate against ones social responsibility. In the context of ‘The Truth about Fortune’, it is very easy to take a utilitarian support as the emphasis here is on the cause of the security of the society, no matter the methodology undertaken to achieve it. Breach of laws and regulations on torture of prisoners are justified here on the utilitarian grounds that this is at times the only solution towards the social cause. The cases as ‘the ticking bomb’ and the ‘slower-fuse high-level terrorist’ are left with no other option than to go on with extreme torture levels. However this theory also does not precisely define the level determining the need of taking the extreme steps. However the second context is much easy to be pursued by a utilitarian as this practically does only affect him in the utility level and not in the implementation level. The surprise in the Singer’s theory thus well goes with his thesis. Peter Singer is an Australian Philosopher who specializes in practical ethics, approaching ethical issues from a utilitarian perspective. His work ‘Famine, Affluence, and Morality’ was published in the revised edition of Philosophy and Public Affairs in 1972. In this essay, the author through the perceptive of the Bengal famine in 1971 tries to evolve the theory that helping the ones in need is more the fellow human’s duty than a charity. Moral attitudes are to be shaped by the needs of the society and he reckons the need of people within the society who would observe the rules that make the social existence tolerable. As of his thesis, the moral point of view requires us to look beyond the

Quantitative market research report carried out on a professional Paper

Quantitative market report carried out on a professional photo service by Marketest (marketing company) - Research Paper Example In addition, although the main aim of taking photos is for memory purposes, many people have gone beyond this tradition belief, and incorporated other aspects such as taking photos for fun, marketing strategies for business among other aspects (Davis 11). In this regard, most people in the UK have decided to seek professional help in matters pertaining to photography services. This is because professional photographer may have a variety of services such as editing photos, adding literature in them and even blending them to bring out the desired purpose of the customer (Allen 7). On the other hand, it is apparent that there a great need to have professional photo services for such purposes. 2. Literature review Importance of using professional photo services for business Due to high competition in the current markets, businesses have decided to spice their marketing strategies in order to develop and maintain competitive advantage that would enable them thrive in a highly competitive market. In this regard, professional photo services play a critical role in informing customers of new and exciting products (Adrian 49). For instance, a hotel may decide to use professional photo services to display some of their new foods. ... In hotel business, entrances and table menus acts as the best places to place advertisement pictures. In addition, they are in a better position to advise the business owner of additional materials to incorporate on the picture (Obermeier and Padova 74). For businesses advertising on the internet and especially via their websites, professional photo services could decide of the best photos to be placed on the website in line with the target market and the line of business (Folsom and Goodridge 12). A good example of a professional photo services is McDonalds. Although there has been heated debate on the dietary and unhealthy effects of fast foods, McDonalds has managed to maintain a considerable number of customers due to its use of professional photo services, which are well displayed on its website and its outlets across the globe. Company vehicles are well branded with photos of different fast foods such as styled hamburger, which entices people even those that clearly know about the effects of fast foods. Studies have documented that quality photos can be used to sell a product or hurt the business greatly. A poor photo can display a negative image of business products thus affecting business performance. For instance, a poorly taken or displayed photo can translate to poor quality products, and this can shun away customers (Johnson 298). A good and quality photo can attract new customers as well as maintain the already existing ones (Malhotra and Birks 24). In this regard, professional photo services can determine the best photos to entice customers, and which; can impress them on their first encounter with them. Studies have also documented that photos can be used to put across several meanings

The French Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

The French Revolution - Essay Example The primary roots of the French Revolution were the political and economic interests of various influential leaders, and the widespread social injustice in France and the colonies due to the monarchy’s and nobility’s abuse of the masses which led to economic hardships and the absence of civil rights and liberties for all. Scholars and other individuals underscored the political motivation behind the French Revolution. Thomas Ott underscored the political aspects of the revolution in St. Domingue. He noted that during the early eighteenth century, â€Å"tensions gathered in St. Domingue between bureaucrat and grand blanc, grand blanc and petit blanc, white and mulatto, mulatto and black, black and white† (188). He is saying that racial divisions promoted divided political interests where political leadership had become more and more important for each racial group. John P. McKay and other scholars agreed that political motivation affected the revolution in St. Domingue. Slaves wanted to be free, mulattoes wanted to be elevated to white status, while the white elite saw the French Revolution as a way of increasing control over their local affairs (596). At the same time, some of the members of the National Assembly were considered as wanting power for their own and riding on the movement as a wa y of gaining political power, which Toussaint LOuverture noted when he addressed the French Directory in 1797. He said that he wanted to enlighten the Directory â€Å"to prevent the enemies of the present system from spreading themselves on our unfortunate shores to sully it with new crimes† (534). He is saying that he wants to prevent the government from being invaded by people who want to apply slavery once more. It can be argued that he wanted to protect the interests of the people from those who wish to use the Revolution to advance their political and economic interests because St. Domingue is the

Study Human Rights And Biharis In Bangladesh Politics Essay

Study Human Rights And Biharis In Bangladesh Politics Essay Refugee problem is an uprising problem in the concurrent world. The Refugee can be made by many ways. The truth is that nobody wants to be a Refugee. But the circumstance made them to become Refugee. These circumstances are sometime created by human beings and sometime it happens by the act of NATURE. The Human Rights of Refugee people are violating in many ways. Sometimes it is seems that Refugee people are not more then a group of people without foods, shelter, clothing and many other necessary things. This make their life same as living in hell. Bangladesh achieved independence from Pakistan in 1971. After liberation war, a considerable number of non-Bengali citizens in Bangladesh, identified as the Biharis who opposed the liberation of Bangladesh, sought to go to Pakistan but could not do so due to complication in the repatriation process. These people are called Stranded Pakistanis or the Bihari Community.  [1]  According to one report, the community is comprised of over 300,000 yet it is not recognized with a clearly defined identity.  [2]  They have been living in 66 squalid camps with poor facilities scattered in several areas of Bangladesh for more than three decades.  [3]  Although they are residing in refugee camps, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) does not recognize them as refugees. Therefore, they are deprived of the benefits and opportunities extended to the refugees by the UNHCR. Therefore, the stranded Biharis in Bangladesh face multiple problems. The main object of this paper is to observe the status of the Bihari people in Bangladesh, highlight the socio-political impact of their statelessness. The central view of the paper is that the Bihari community in Bangladesh is an artificial minority and they are deprived of Human Rights because they are considered as they are not part of Bangladesh, but yet living there as unwanted refugees. The unresolved status of the Biharis is a result of intentional procrastination and political indecision on the part of both Bangladesh and Pakistan. The analysis of the Biharis Human Rights problem is divided into two following sections. The first section discusses the background to the Biharis problem and their political status in Bangladesh. The second section discusses the socio-political conditions of the Bihari community in Bangladesh. Ill focus three of Rights according to Martha C.Nussbaums CENTRAL HUMAN FUNCTIONAL CAPABILITIES, these three rights are 1. Rights of Bodily health,2. Affili ation, 3.Play. And here the present Human Rights situation of Biharis will be cleared in our eyes. 2.Meaning of the term Artificial Minority: The term artificial minority requires an explanation. The term minority is defined in a number of ways. According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, a minority is an ethnic, religious, or other group having a distinctive presence with little power or representation relative to other groups within a society. Here is another meaning of Minority  [4]   1) a. The smaller in number of two groups forming a whole. b. A group or party having fewer than a controlling number of votes. 2) a. A racial, religious, political, national, or other group thought to be different from the larger group of which it is part. b. A group having little power or representation relative to other groups within a society. c. A member of one of these groups. 3) Law. The state or period of being under legal age:  still in her minority. In municipal and international legal systems, minority denotes a particular meaning. The term minority was first legally defined by the Sub Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities in 1977 in Article 27 of International Covenant of Civil Political Rights (ICCPR) of 1966. The article notes: Minorities are considered to be a group numerically inferior to the rest of the population of the state, in a non-dominant position, whose members being citizens of a state, possess ethnic beliefs or linguistic characteristics differing from the rest of the population and show if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity directly towards preserving their culture, traditions, religions or language. According to this definition, the shield of minorities is linked to the criteria of Citizenship/nationality, which is usually supported by legal definitions in charters and covenants. Scrutiny of these definitions shows that the term minority is a combination of five elements: (1) number, (2) subordinate status, (3) ethnic or religious or linguistic traits, (4) a will/wish to safeguard or preserve or strengthen the patterns of lifestyle, and (5) in some cases citizenship. The Bihari society in Bangladesh also has the minority distinctiveness outlined in the definitions provided earlier. They are ethnically different as they speak in different language. Internally they maintain Bihari cultural values in their social life. Due to these characteristics, they maintain a special ethnic identity despite practicing the religion of the Bengali majority. Yet, the Bihari community in Bangladesh is not considered a minority group. The Biharis have been given a peculiar status which is artificial, that makes them neither refugees nor minorities. It is artificial because it is a product of an historical legacy of 1947, and of a political context of 1971, which made them live in artificially designated areas (camps) under international agreement. Yet they are factually a minority because they are insignificant in number. This arrangement separated them from the rest of the society and gave them an artificial identity. 3. Theoretical Overview: *Definition of Refugee: Those who flee their own countries looking for of protection abroad do so specifically because their human rights are at risk in their own country. To decide that an individual has a well-founded fear of persecution is in effect to conclude that one or more of his or her basic human rights are not being respected.( It is hard to define that violation of which rights may led a man or a group of people to become Refugee. Sometime violation of Political rights, sometime social rights, sometime want of basic needs may make them Refugee). Similarly, to determine that groups of people fleeing conflict or serious disturbances of the public order are prima facie refugees is in most cases to acknowledge that they are victims of violations of human rights or humanitarian law. According to the general definition contained in the 1951 Convention, a refugee is a person who: As a result of events occurring before 1 January 1951 and owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted is outside his country of nationality (The 1951 dateline originated in the wish of Governments, at the time the Convention was adopted, to limit their obligations to refugee situations that were known to exist at that time, or to those which might subsequently arise from events that had already occurred) The   Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 as amended by the 1966 Protocol, denoted the definition of Refugee as,-A person who, owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it. According to the Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa,1969 the definition of Refugee isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. the term refugee  [5]  shall mean every person who, owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country, or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. refugee  [6]  shall also apply to every person who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality. The Organization of American States, 1985 view A Refugee as- Persons who have fled their country because their lives, safety or freedom have been threatened by generalized violence, foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive violations of human rights or other circumstances which have seriously disturbed public order. Many states give priority to refugees in the acceptance of applicants for immigration and on that basis, qualification as a refugee is essential. In  Ward v Canada, Canadas Supreme Court spoke of that: rationale underlying the international refugee protection regime, for this permeates the interpretation of the various terms requiring examination.   International refugee law was formulated to serve as a back up to the protection one expects from the state of which an individual is a national.   It was meant to come into play only in situations when that protection is unavailable, and then only in certain situations.   The international community intended that persecuted individuals be required to approach their home state for protection before the responsibility of other states becomes engaged. as surrogate or substitute protection, activated only upon failure of national protection. In that decision, the Court also clarified that the state from which refugee status was being sought, needed not to be complicit in the alleged persecution or the well-founded fear What exactly must a claimant do to establish fear of persecution? The test is bipartite: (1) the claimant must subjectively fear persecution; and (2) this fear must be well-founded in an objective sense. In summary, it is apparent that the refugee have to be outside his or her country of origin, and the fact of having fled, of having crossed an international frontier, is an basic part of the quality of refugee, understood in its ordinary sense. However, it is not necessary to have fled because of fear of persecution, or even actually to have been persecuted. The fear of persecution looks to the future, and can materialize during an individuals absence from their home country, for example, because of prime political change. * Human Rights; In view of Nussbaum: Martha C. Nussbaum  [7]  in her well renowned book, Women and human Development, The Capabilities Approach she has described some rights which are important for a human to live as a human in a society. The most important feature of her theory is the central human functional capabilities. These are as following: CENTRAL HUMAN FUNCTIONAL CAPABILITIES  [8]   1. Life. 2. Bodily Health. 3. Bodily Integrity. 4. Senses, Imagination, and Thought. 5. Emotions. 6. Practical Reason. 7.  Affiliation. 8. Other Species 9. Play. 10.  Control over ones environment.  (A)  Political: (B)  Material: To discuss the situation of Biharis well only focus on the three of these rights. These are 1. Life. 2. Bodily Health. 3. Affiliation. 4. Historical Back ground : During the Partition of British-India in 1947, around one million Urdu speaking Muslims from the present day Indian provinces of Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura ,Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan moved to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.  [9]  Their movement to East Pakistan was occurred in the wake of communal brutality during and in the consequences of the partition (for example, 30,000 Muslims were killed in the Great Bihar Killing in October-November 1947) and to preserve their Islamic way of life.  [10]  , About a million of them migrated to the eastern wing of Pakistan (East Pakistan)  [11]  . They also saw Hijrat (migration) as an escape from the possibility of living in a Hindu majority India.  [12]  To their disappointment, when they arrived in East Pakistan, leaving behind their possessions, their familiar environment and professions, they felt divided in the new society in terms of language, custo ms, traditions and culture. Although speakers of Pakistans official language, Urdu, they found themselves as a minority in the majority Bengali-speaking East Pakistan. These differences resulted in the Biharis identifying with West Pakistan whose dominance over the Pakistani state assured them of receiving greater privileges from the Central Government. While Bengalis were overwhelmingly employed in the agricultural sector, the Biharis, as full citizens of Pakistan, came to be occupied in the industrial sector, small business, trade and commerce. The Bihari community never assimilated with the local people and maintained alliance with the West Pakistani regime against the interest of the Bengali people. They supported the adoption of Urdu as the official language in East Pakistan, where the language of the majority was Bengali, and opposed the Bengalis language movement in 1952. They also supported the issues of United Pakistan in the national and provincial elections in 1970.  [13]  During 1971 Bangladeshi war of independence, the Biharis as Urdu-speaking people of non-Bengali origin, collaborated with the West Pakistani regime and opposed the Bangladeshi freedom movement. When Bangladesh finally achieved freedom, Bihari people wanted to go to West Pakistan, but could not do so at once due to complication in repatriation process. This situation left them abandoned in Bangladesh. They were promised of repatriation to Pakistan, but this promise was never fully materialized. 5. VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN VARIOUS SPHERE * Identity crisis of the Biharis in Bangladesh: The stranded Biharis in Bangladesh are suffering from identity crisis. In Bangladesh, they have three different statuses, according to their present stand. First, they are considered as foreign (Pakistanis) that are stranded. They have been temporarily accommodated in refugee camps, but they are not regarded as refugees in the conventional sense. According to the Article 6(A) (1) of the Statute of UNHCR and Article 1(A) (2) of the Refugee Convention 1951, a refugee is a person who belongs to the following three criteria: (a) The person is outside the country of his nationality, or in the case of Stateless persons, outside the country of habitual residence; (b) The person lacks natural protection; and (c) The person fears persecution. All these three criteria are apparently applicable to the Biharis in Bangladesh. However, According to the cessation clauses of the 1951 Convention and the UNHCR Statutes of 1950, a person shall stop being a refugee if, among others: (1) h/she has voluntarily re-established him/herself in the country which h/she left or outside which h/she remained owing to fear of persecution, The case of the Bihari Muslims is covered by this clause. Because, firstly, they voluntarily migrated to East Pakistan in 1947 from India; and secondly, in Pakistan they enjoyed protection by the state and were full-fledged citizens after 1951 according to Section 3(d) of the Pakistan Citizenship Act, which reads: At the commencement of this Act every person shall be deemed to be a citizen of Pakistan who before the commencement of this Act migrated to the territories now included in Pakistan from any territory in the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent outside those territories with the intention of residing permanently in those territories. Many of the people of Biharis who are over 40 years old like to address themselves as a Pakistani. Because the voted for Pakistan (In the election held in 1970). They fought for Pakistan,( During the liberation war held in 1971).And they believe that they have more similarity between Pakistanis than Bangladesh. Therefore, the case of the Biharis was not viewed a refugee situation after the partition of 1947, as they were changed and naturalized in their newly demarcated territories. The question of the Biharis becoming refugees had arisen when Bangladesh became independent from Pakistan. All of a sudden, these people became stateless as they identified themselves as Pakistanis. On the one hand, they were not refugees as they were not displaced from their place of residence, and on the other hand, they were stranded outside of their country where their status remained unrecognized. Secondly, these complexities have given rendered the Biharis in Bangladesh a peculiar status, which can be called artificial minority, which gave them second type of identity. The term was discussed before. According to these definition, the protection of minorities is linked to the criteria of Citizenship/Nationality, which is usually supported by legal definitions in charters and covenants. According to the Council of European Commission for Democracy Through Law (CDL) a minority is: A group which is smaller in number than the rest of the population of a State, whose members have ethnic, religious or linguistic features different from those of the rest of the population, and are guided, if only implicitly, by the will to safeguard their culture, traditions, religion or language. Any group coming within the terms of this definition shall be treated as an ethnic, religious or linguistic minority.  [14]   In this definition, the requirement of citizenship has been omitted because citizenship should not be a requirement for basic human rights. The Bihari community in Bangladesh also has the minority characteristics outlined in the definitions provided earlier. They are ethnically different as they speak in different language. Internally they maintain Bihari cultural values in social life. Due to these characteristics, they maintain a different ethnic identity despite practicing the religion of the Bengali majority. Yet, the Bihari community in Bangladesh is not considered a minority group. The Biharis have been given a peculiar status, which is artificial, that makes them neither refugees nor minorities. Thirdly and Finally, The Biharis are considered as the citizen of Bangladesh. Because according to the existing citizen laws  [15]  of Bangladesh The people who are residing in Bangladesh from 26th March, 1971 will be considered as the citizen of Bangladesh. But before the election of 29th December,2008 no Biharis were considered as eligible for voting. Because the Biharis were thought as non-citizen in all the sphere of the government. After a historic judgment the High Court of Bangladesh has declare them as eligible for the voting.  [16]   As noted earlier, due to their crisis of identity, the Bihari people are deprived of both citizenship privileges as well as refugee benefits from the international community. The consequence is that they have to shoulder the impact of this unwanted and unresolved identity in their social, political and economic life. Here we can see that Bihari people have no socio-political identity except an ethnic recognition. The actual identity of these people should be as BANGLADESH As per the Nationality laws of Bangladesh. Martha Nussbaum said about this matter in her capabilities approach in number  [17]  7,  Affiliation.  . .Being able to live for and in relation to others, to recognize and show concern for other human beings, to engage in various forms of social interaction; being able to imagine the situation of another and to have compassion for that situation; having the capability for both justice and friendship. . . . Being able to be treated as a dignified being whose worth is equal to that of others. If we compare this term with the situation of These Biharis well find that here all of these are violated. So, it is necessary right now to define the political and social identity of these Bihari people. ** Population of Biharis: Over population and population density are two primary problems in the refugee camps. Since 1971 the community people has almost doubled in number due to high birth rate in the camps.  [18]  According to a survey report in 1992, the demographic figure of this community was 238,093 in 66 different camps throughout Bangladesh (Table 1). The number of residents has farther risen over time and that created extreme population density, as the number of camps remained unchanged since their construction in 1972.  [19]  Presently, it is reported that the demographic figure is approximately 300,000 people.  [20]  However, no proper survey has been done recently. The following map shows the geographical distribution of the Bihari camps in Bangladesh. The living conditions in these overcrowded camps are very squalid. Families of seven to ten members share a small eight by ten feet living space.  [21]  Being frustrated with the camp life, sometimes the Bihari people escape from th e camp and try to integrate themselves within the local community. Among them, very few are fortunate enough to survive and ultimately become able to give their children education. In most cases, they fail to survive by themselves and eventually return to the camps due to their inability to adjust to the social and economic conditions. Here we can see how these people are deprived from an important human functional capabilities mentioned by Nussbaum. The second human capability  [22]  is Bodily health . . .  Being able to have good health, including reproductive health; being adequately nourished . . . ; being able to have adequate shelter . . However, living in such densely cannot ensure these rights. Yes, it is true that Bangladesh is a over populated country. In addition, almost everywhere, the density is same, but at least the government can give them a chance to live as other people of Bangladesh. ***Health ,Sanitation and Medical Care The living atmosphere of the camps is very awful. It is unhealthy, dirty, damp and unhygienic. The camp authorities are neither able nor serious to maintain a healthy sanitation facility. The drainage system is tremendously poor, which causes water logging very easily. Therefore, contagious diseases especially diarrhea and dengue are very common. This condition exists in other camps throughout the country. The municipalities/City Corporation cleaners never enter the camps to clear the garbage. It is only when the camp-dwellers drop their garbage in the dustbins outside the camp, that the City Corporation cleaners will take them out. In addition, the entire camp people share a few common bathrooms and toilets, which are very few compared to the number of people .  [23]   Most of the time they need to queue to get their turn. Furthermore, both male and female alike share the same facility, which creates problems for the females. There is no privacy for the females either in toilet or shower facilities. At night, when young ladies need to visit toilet, they take their parents or someone else as their guard. Most of the toilets are without shade, and people need to stand in line for their turn. In the shower rooms, women sometimes have to wait for hours to take bath in groups of three or four. Moreover, there is an sensitive scarcity of safe drinking water in every camp. Deep tube well is the key source of water in camps, but there is also acute shortage of tube well in every camp. Therefore, water born diseases, like cholera, typhoid and skin disease are endemic. The medical assistance for the Refugee people is too poor.. There is only one medical clinic (Al-Falah Model Clinic) in the camp of Dhaka, which is poorly equipped. Moreover, in some cases, camps do not have a single medical clinic. As a result, infant mortality due to lack of medical care is quite common. Three out of every five newborns die before reaching the age five. Likewise, reserve to proper medical facilities make women vulnerable to unsafe delivery, chronic diseases like polio, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) and other health problems. Many women die every year without getting proper medical care. As these people are very poor, they cannot afford to take medical facilities from other government and private institutions. Here we can see that the first condition of human capabilities  [24]  Life. . .   Being able to live to the end of a human life of normal length . . . ; not dying prematurely . . . is very not in work for these camp living people. 6. Some Proposal: From the overall study about vulnerable situation of Biharis and The Central Human Capabilities, I think that following steps should be taken and must be implemented as early as possible. The government of Bangladesh must give the recognition of Biharis. Moreover, at the same time government should take some initial that can ensure the social and political freedom of Biharis. Moreover, Beharis are the citizen of Bangladesh as per the citizen laws of Bangladesh and the historical background of Biharis reveals them as the citizen of Bangladesh. Therefore, the main thing is that they should be treated as same as a usual citizen of Bangladesh. The camps must be removed and the status of the Biharis as Refugee should be eliminate. They should given the same opportunities as a people of Bangladesh. In addition, as they are an underdeveloped community, they should given some priority in every sphere of life. The Biharis must be allowed to move freely and to settle anywhere of Bangladesh. Moreover, the person who wants to go to Pakistan for that they think that they are citizen of Pakistan, the movement must be also allowed and the proper diplomatic and political steps should be taken with honesty. The health and medical facilities should be increased and the people must be provided with the basic lessons of health and hygiene. And the education facilities also needed to be available for the Behari people.. The safe drinking facilities must be increased so that the safe water is available for every one in the camp. 7. Conclusion:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In  Women and Human Development, Martha Nussbaum attempts to move the theoretical terrain on which international development policy is currently situated. In doing so, she constructs a universalistic feminist philosophy based on central human capabilities that, if met, would provide the minimum threshold essential for the progress of all people. In place of cultural relativism and aggregated conceptions of the good put forward by utilitarian economics, Nussbaum proposes a set of interconnected and indivisible capabilities, conceived as human rights, which offer moral guidance for the development of political principles that can be translated into constitutional guarantees. The capabilities provide individuals with opportunities for functioning, for making self-defined choices possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nussbaums chief objective is to place these spheres of choice beyond the whim of majoritarian politics by translating them into constitutional guarantees. For her, the political goal of justice, of meeting the threshold for each capability, supersedes libertyoutweighing and morally constraining choices that conflict with the central principle of political liberalism: do no harm to others. Ensuring equal access to the central capabilities, she argues, should constrain all economic choices  [25]  Individual and collective choices that result in differential access to the capabilities, she argues, ineluctably violate this governing principle.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Because the exercise of certain types of functioning in childhood are an essential precondition to developing a mature adult capability, Nussbaum argues that the state has a compelling interest in any treatment of children that has a long-term impact on these capabilities  [26]  Thus, it is imperative that children be given genuine opportunities to exercise capabilities that are vital to their functioning as future citizens.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In addition to material prerequisites, actual functi